1 00:00:00,800 --> 00:00:03,003 You and your spouse are the 2 00:00:03,003 --> 00:00:05,972 king and Queen of France. 3 00:00:09,109 --> 00:00:11,678 The year is 1789. 4 00:00:11,678 --> 00:00:14,781 Oh, you awake to another 5 00:00:14,781 --> 00:00:18,151 glorious day in the luxurious Palace of Versailles 6 00:00:18,651 --> 00:00:22,856 and are attended to by a room of nosy nobles vying for your favor. 7 00:00:24,024 --> 00:00:26,192 Courtiers dress you in a lavish 8 00:00:26,192 --> 00:00:29,195 white silk robe and the finest furs. 9 00:00:30,030 --> 00:00:32,899 On your royal head sits the royal crown, 10 00:00:32,899 --> 00:00:35,902 adorned with gems and jewels. 11 00:00:37,070 --> 00:00:38,338 Breakfast is a feast 12 00:00:38,338 --> 00:00:42,675 prepared by 300 servants first oysters with champagne, 13 00:00:43,410 --> 00:00:46,913 a creamy chicken soup and you can smell your favorite. 14 00:00:47,380 --> 00:00:50,183 The savory aroma of roasted pheasant 15 00:00:50,183 --> 00:00:53,186 with truffle oil drizzled on golden souffles. 16 00:00:54,387 --> 00:00:57,624 You peruse your private library that holds some of the most rare 17 00:00:57,624 --> 00:01:00,627 and important texts in Western civilization. 18 00:01:01,127 --> 00:01:04,064 Then you stroll the intricate mazes in your gardens, 19 00:01:04,064 --> 00:01:07,767 lined with ornate fountains and exotic species from the New World. 20 00:01:08,468 --> 00:01:13,273 Afterwards, you ride horseback through your royal forests, ancient groves 21 00:01:13,273 --> 00:01:18,945 of beech and chestnut, majestic landscapes that stretch for miles. 22 00:01:20,113 --> 00:01:23,349 Just be sure to make it back in time for council with oil ministers 23 00:01:23,349 --> 00:01:27,787 and dignitaries who keep you abreast of the goings on of your vast kingdom, 24 00:01:28,121 --> 00:01:31,124 from the mainland to your colonies overseas. 25 00:01:34,427 --> 00:01:38,498 You, of course, were born to run hand-picked 26 00:01:38,498 --> 00:01:41,634 by God along with the other members of the nobility. 27 00:01:42,102 --> 00:01:44,904 You're not going to get some commoner to run society after all. 28 00:01:44,904 --> 00:01:48,942 And this system of absolute rule of one over 29 00:01:48,942 --> 00:01:52,712 the many has lasted for thousands of years. 30 00:01:53,313 --> 00:01:56,316 But this is all about to change. 31 00:01:58,485 --> 00:02:00,086 In a few weeks time, 32 00:02:00,086 --> 00:02:02,956 the countryside will descend into anarchy. 33 00:02:02,956 --> 00:02:04,557 Peasants will revolt. 34 00:02:04,557 --> 00:02:06,359 Your castles will be stormed. 35 00:02:06,359 --> 00:02:10,263 And finally your royal head will be removed from your royal body. 36 00:02:10,997 --> 00:02:14,567 The monarchy will come to an end soon. 37 00:02:15,301 --> 00:02:16,436 The people will rule. 38 00:02:26,045 --> 00:02:26,913 Welcome to 39 00:02:26,913 --> 00:02:31,918 human nature, Odyssey, a podcast exploring the past that shaped our present 40 00:02:32,452 --> 00:02:35,455 and the ideas that can shape our future. 41 00:02:35,788 --> 00:02:38,791 I'm Alex Smith. 42 00:02:55,775 --> 00:02:58,778 Okay, so I think a lot of us 43 00:02:58,912 --> 00:03:01,915 are looking around at our country right now. 44 00:03:02,515 --> 00:03:04,584 Whichever one that might be. 45 00:03:04,584 --> 00:03:08,821 Or taking a good look at our global civilization and thinking, you know, 46 00:03:09,389 --> 00:03:12,392 I'm not so sure about this direction we're headed in. 47 00:03:13,726 --> 00:03:15,962 I think that's most of us, right? 48 00:03:15,962 --> 00:03:18,965 I mean, how many people are happy with the way society is headed? 49 00:03:19,799 --> 00:03:22,502 We all may have different opinions on what's wrong 50 00:03:22,502 --> 00:03:26,072 and what directions could be better, but there seems to be 51 00:03:26,606 --> 00:03:29,142 a general consensus. 52 00:03:29,142 --> 00:03:31,811 Maybe the one thing we all agree on. 53 00:03:31,811 --> 00:03:34,380 That things are not right. 54 00:03:34,380 --> 00:03:37,383 So then the question is, well, what do we do about it? 55 00:03:38,384 --> 00:03:40,453 How do we change our society? 56 00:03:40,453 --> 00:03:42,855 How do we change our social structures? 57 00:03:42,855 --> 00:03:45,391 The way our society is organized? 58 00:03:45,391 --> 00:03:47,260 That's politics, right? 59 00:03:47,260 --> 00:03:51,097 That's what politics is trying to shape, how society is run. 60 00:03:51,931 --> 00:03:56,169 Now, back when there was a king, back in the days of Louis the 16th. 61 00:03:56,603 --> 00:03:59,606 Politics was not for everyday people. 62 00:03:59,872 --> 00:04:01,574 Oh, well, what are you peasants talking about? 63 00:04:01,574 --> 00:04:03,209 Shut up, shut up! 64 00:04:03,209 --> 00:04:04,877 The king's going to do the king's thing. 65 00:04:04,877 --> 00:04:06,312 Don't worry about it. 66 00:04:06,312 --> 00:04:07,547 That's how it's always been. 67 00:04:07,547 --> 00:04:09,616 And that's how it's always going to be. 68 00:04:09,616 --> 00:04:13,920 But then there was a little something called the French Revolution. 69 00:04:14,487 --> 00:04:18,191 And the French monarchy was replaced by a French republic. 70 00:04:19,325 --> 00:04:21,594 And over 200 years later, 71 00:04:21,594 --> 00:04:24,931 the idea that the people have the right to determine 72 00:04:24,931 --> 00:04:28,001 their government has spread across the globe. 73 00:04:28,901 --> 00:04:33,506 In 2020, four, more countries than ever before in world history held 74 00:04:33,506 --> 00:04:36,609 national elections India, Pakistan, 75 00:04:36,809 --> 00:04:40,947 South Korea, South Africa, Ghana, Mozambique, Belgium, Portugal, 76 00:04:41,047 --> 00:04:44,717 Uruguay, Mexico, the United Kingdom, the United States 77 00:04:45,251 --> 00:04:48,288 and 52 others held national elections. 78 00:04:49,122 --> 00:04:49,956 Different issues 79 00:04:49,956 --> 00:04:54,160 dominated each country's headlines, like minority Muslim rights in India. 80 00:04:54,560 --> 00:04:58,398 Power outages in South Africa or government corruption in Mexico. 81 00:04:58,731 --> 00:05:03,036 But the political parties promising ways to protect, stop 82 00:05:03,269 --> 00:05:07,640 or fix them are more or less mapped on to what we call. 83 00:05:08,107 --> 00:05:11,577 But the, the political spectrum, 84 00:05:12,545 --> 00:05:13,212 you know, the political 85 00:05:13,212 --> 00:05:16,215 spectrum got a left wing and right wing. 86 00:05:16,382 --> 00:05:19,052 In Mexico's election, the left wing won. 87 00:05:19,052 --> 00:05:20,086 In South Africa. 88 00:05:20,086 --> 00:05:22,322 The center was reelected in India. 89 00:05:22,322 --> 00:05:25,258 The right wing is getting another shot at it. 90 00:05:25,258 --> 00:05:29,696 And you probably have your own opinions about the left wing and right wing. 91 00:05:30,296 --> 00:05:31,731 Who doesn't? 92 00:05:31,731 --> 00:05:36,569 The notion of a political spectrum is so ingrained that it impacts 93 00:05:36,569 --> 00:05:41,274 not just how we talk about politics, but how we identify as people. 94 00:05:41,874 --> 00:05:43,142 I am a liberal. 95 00:05:43,142 --> 00:05:45,178 Oh, I am a conservative. 96 00:05:45,178 --> 00:05:48,181 But these are just metaphors. 97 00:05:48,514 --> 00:05:51,150 This is a map we use to navigate ideas. 98 00:05:51,150 --> 00:05:54,153 It's not a timeless biological reality. 99 00:05:54,454 --> 00:05:59,292 Yet this map, the political spectrum, holds immense power over us. 100 00:05:59,792 --> 00:06:02,862 It limits and guides what we believe is possible. 101 00:06:03,363 --> 00:06:06,599 It constrains and informs how we imagine our future. 102 00:06:07,900 --> 00:06:10,903 Today, we live at a crossroads. 103 00:06:11,037 --> 00:06:14,574 Our global civilization is more powerful than ever before. 104 00:06:15,341 --> 00:06:18,978 And as its power has grown, so have the dangers 105 00:06:18,978 --> 00:06:23,716 it faces the prospect of world war, climate catastrophe, 106 00:06:24,150 --> 00:06:27,153 and the unraveling of the living world we depend on. 107 00:06:27,754 --> 00:06:30,089 All greater existential threats 108 00:06:30,089 --> 00:06:33,092 than perhaps any time in human history. 109 00:06:33,259 --> 00:06:36,362 And here we are, living right smack dab in. 110 00:06:37,263 --> 00:06:40,266 But there still is so much possibility. 111 00:06:40,633 --> 00:06:43,436 There's still a world where peace is possible. 112 00:06:43,436 --> 00:06:45,037 Basic needs are met. 113 00:06:45,037 --> 00:06:48,040 Where we live in balance with the rest of the natural world. 114 00:06:49,008 --> 00:06:51,711 The collective path we all take 115 00:06:51,711 --> 00:06:53,880 and the map we go by 116 00:06:53,880 --> 00:06:56,649 will be determined by our political systems, 117 00:06:56,649 --> 00:06:59,652 which operate within the political spectrum. 118 00:07:00,586 --> 00:07:02,488 But surely the route we need to 119 00:07:02,488 --> 00:07:06,192 travel is more complex than just the left or the right. 120 00:07:07,560 --> 00:07:07,860 Where do 121 00:07:07,860 --> 00:07:10,897 we get this idea of a left wing or a right wing anyway? 122 00:07:11,631 --> 00:07:16,436 How is it in a world of such diversity of languages and traditions and religions? 123 00:07:16,803 --> 00:07:18,571 There's just two fricking wings. 124 00:07:18,571 --> 00:07:19,906 What are we, a bird? 125 00:07:19,906 --> 00:07:23,876 Well, it all started during the French Revolution. 126 00:07:24,510 --> 00:07:27,914 And if we want to expand our map and chart a better direction, 127 00:07:28,548 --> 00:07:31,551 that's where our story needs to begin. 128 00:07:36,055 --> 00:07:37,857 When there's breaking news, 129 00:07:37,857 --> 00:07:42,061 reporting usually does a lousy job at providing context. 130 00:07:42,695 --> 00:07:46,299 It's often the most surface level information they can share before 131 00:07:46,299 --> 00:07:47,700 cutting to commercial. 132 00:07:47,700 --> 00:07:51,404 Without the decades, even centuries of social, political, 133 00:07:51,404 --> 00:07:55,208 and economic dynamics that led to the breaking news in the first place, 134 00:07:56,042 --> 00:07:59,045 we forget that the past was filled with regular people 135 00:07:59,312 --> 00:08:03,216 and that current events are not an epilog, but part of history. 136 00:08:04,083 --> 00:08:07,053 There is no real separation between history and the present. 137 00:08:07,587 --> 00:08:10,256 It's one continuous story. 138 00:08:10,256 --> 00:08:13,993 And as we'll see, the phenomenon we called the French Revolution 139 00:08:14,193 --> 00:08:20,266 and its aftermath is not confined to the past, but still unfolding today. 140 00:08:25,671 --> 00:08:28,441 As we learned in episode 11 of Human Nature Odyssey, 141 00:08:28,441 --> 00:08:30,376 which if you listen too great, 142 00:08:30,376 --> 00:08:34,447 but you don't need to have in order to listen to this sociologist 143 00:08:34,547 --> 00:08:38,818 and historian Emmanuel Wallerstein set out to create a conceptual 144 00:08:38,818 --> 00:08:41,821 framework to help us see the story we're all part of. 145 00:08:41,821 --> 00:08:45,625 So he wrote World Systems Analysis on the political 146 00:08:45,625 --> 00:08:48,794 and economic structures that shape our global civilization. 147 00:08:49,462 --> 00:08:53,065 In that episode, we focused on the economic side of things 148 00:08:53,432 --> 00:08:56,402 how capitalism molded our modern world system. 149 00:08:56,936 --> 00:09:00,406 But Wallerstein believed it wasn't just capitalism 150 00:09:00,706 --> 00:09:02,742 that formed our modern world system. 151 00:09:02,742 --> 00:09:06,379 It was the political struggle for democracy that began 152 00:09:06,379 --> 00:09:08,314 with the French Revolution. 153 00:09:08,314 --> 00:09:10,483 In this three part series. 154 00:09:10,483 --> 00:09:13,786 We're exploring the origins of that political struggle, 155 00:09:14,287 --> 00:09:18,391 and by the end, we'll have followed this unfolding story right up 156 00:09:18,891 --> 00:09:19,759 to the present moment. 157 00:09:32,371 --> 00:09:34,907 Since the fall of the Roman Empire, 158 00:09:34,907 --> 00:09:38,244 most of Europe had been a land of kings. 159 00:09:38,911 --> 00:09:41,781 The few countries without a king like the Dutch, 160 00:09:41,781 --> 00:09:44,784 Venetians and Swiss or exceptions. 161 00:09:45,017 --> 00:09:47,787 And they still had a small group of elites wielding power 162 00:09:47,787 --> 00:09:50,122 over the rest of the lower classes. Don't you worry. 163 00:09:50,122 --> 00:09:53,192 They weren't crazy monarchies were the norm. 164 00:09:53,926 --> 00:09:58,531 Medieval Europeans knew that the ancient Roman Republic, elected 165 00:09:58,531 --> 00:10:03,302 members of a Senate and parts of ancient Greece had something called a democracy. 166 00:10:03,769 --> 00:10:07,506 But in the mind of most Europeans, that was just ancient history. 167 00:10:08,207 --> 00:10:11,677 But recently, Europeans were coming into contact 168 00:10:12,044 --> 00:10:15,948 with some Native American nations, like the Iroquois Confederacy, 169 00:10:16,082 --> 00:10:19,719 whose elected representatives made decisions collectively 170 00:10:20,086 --> 00:10:25,124 and were free from absolute rulers, which the Europeans thought was very odd. 171 00:10:25,992 --> 00:10:27,860 But Europe was changing. 172 00:10:27,860 --> 00:10:33,299 And over a couple centuries, the European mindset slowly started to shift. 173 00:10:34,367 --> 00:10:36,035 In 1762, 174 00:10:36,035 --> 00:10:39,772 French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau came to believe 175 00:10:39,772 --> 00:10:43,476 that freedom was natural and monarchy was not. 176 00:10:44,143 --> 00:10:46,712 Rousseau famously wrote, quote, 177 00:10:46,712 --> 00:10:50,282 man is born free, but everywhere he's in chains. 178 00:10:50,916 --> 00:10:55,121 A couple of years later, Denis Diderot, another French thinker, 179 00:10:55,621 --> 00:11:00,359 put it a little more bluntly quote men will never be free 180 00:11:00,526 --> 00:11:03,462 until the last king is strangled with the entrails 181 00:11:03,462 --> 00:11:06,465 of the last priest. 182 00:11:07,800 --> 00:11:10,569 So by the year 1789, 183 00:11:10,569 --> 00:11:13,572 the people of France were not happy. 184 00:11:13,839 --> 00:11:16,709 Even King Louis the 16th knew that. 185 00:11:16,709 --> 00:11:21,247 But did he know just how unhappy France had long been? 186 00:11:21,247 --> 00:11:25,251 A highly stratified society, divided into the clergy, 187 00:11:25,484 --> 00:11:28,487 the nobility, and everyone else? 188 00:11:28,721 --> 00:11:32,725 But now more and more peasants were complaining that the top 189 00:11:32,725 --> 00:11:37,496 1% of the nobility owned almost a third of the land in France, 190 00:11:38,130 --> 00:11:41,133 and somehow the wealthier you were, 191 00:11:41,267 --> 00:11:44,270 the less you had to pay in taxes. 192 00:11:44,370 --> 00:11:48,274 On top of this, the Treasury was facing economic troubles 193 00:11:48,274 --> 00:11:52,011 from costly overseas wars and famine in the countryside. 194 00:11:52,678 --> 00:11:55,681 The people did not have enough bread to eat. 195 00:11:55,881 --> 00:11:58,918 But as King Louis wife, Marie Antoinette, may 196 00:11:58,918 --> 00:12:02,121 or may not have actually said, let them eat cake. 197 00:12:02,922 --> 00:12:03,656 Besides. 198 00:12:03,656 --> 00:12:04,757 Come on. 199 00:12:04,757 --> 00:12:08,260 Times have been tough before, but the monarchy has always survived. 200 00:12:08,594 --> 00:12:10,429 I mean, this is Louis the 16th. 201 00:12:10,429 --> 00:12:13,432 We're talking about the 16th. 202 00:12:13,799 --> 00:12:15,601 There's been 16 of them. 203 00:12:15,601 --> 00:12:17,670 And that's just the Louis. 204 00:12:17,670 --> 00:12:19,371 But just in case. 205 00:12:19,371 --> 00:12:23,042 This is why every king needs a good executioner. 206 00:12:23,642 --> 00:12:26,846 And there was none better than Charles and Reason. 207 00:12:27,480 --> 00:12:30,182 He was King Louis royal executioner. 208 00:12:30,182 --> 00:12:34,687 And Charles on reason wasn't just your average run of the mill executioner. 209 00:12:34,687 --> 00:12:36,889 Now with a 40 year career. 210 00:12:36,889 --> 00:12:39,725 Charles Honoré was the best in the business. 211 00:12:39,725 --> 00:12:40,559 I'm Tony. 212 00:12:40,559 --> 00:12:42,962 If you needed someone, if this was your guy. 213 00:12:44,396 --> 00:12:44,697 But in 214 00:12:44,697 --> 00:12:48,167 July of 1789, a mob stormed the Bastille. 215 00:12:48,501 --> 00:12:51,103 Peasants burned their official feudal contracts, 216 00:12:51,103 --> 00:12:54,507 and thousands of Parisian women armed themselves with muskets 217 00:12:54,507 --> 00:12:57,543 and pitchforks and marched on the Palace of Versailles. 218 00:12:59,745 --> 00:13:02,982 The calls for liberté, égalité, fraternité 219 00:13:03,249 --> 00:13:06,519 were heard from the largest cities to the smallest towns. 220 00:13:07,153 --> 00:13:09,722 France was now in the throes 221 00:13:09,722 --> 00:13:12,625 of a full on revolution. 222 00:13:12,625 --> 00:13:15,127 And when the revolutionary forces captured King Louis 223 00:13:15,127 --> 00:13:19,165 the 16th and sentenced him to death, guess who they called 224 00:13:20,099 --> 00:13:23,836 King Louie's own executioner, Charles Henri Sanson. 225 00:13:24,303 --> 00:13:25,371 That's right. 226 00:13:25,371 --> 00:13:29,441 Charles Henry was given the task of executing his very own 227 00:13:29,441 --> 00:13:31,844 employer of 40 years. 228 00:13:31,844 --> 00:13:33,979 But do you think the best executioner 229 00:13:33,979 --> 00:13:37,750 in all of Paris hesitated for one moment before killing the king? 230 00:13:38,317 --> 00:13:40,886 I doubt it. The man's a profession. 231 00:13:40,886 --> 00:13:42,288 Study boss. 232 00:13:44,590 --> 00:13:45,157 So, after 233 00:13:45,157 --> 00:13:48,160 centuries of monarchy, the king is dead. 234 00:13:48,661 --> 00:13:51,430 Now what, sir? 235 00:13:51,430 --> 00:13:55,301 Kings have been killed before, but they were always replaced by another king. 236 00:13:56,001 --> 00:13:57,002 I mean, yeah, yeah. 237 00:13:57,002 --> 00:13:58,904 There's that runaway British colony. 238 00:13:58,904 --> 00:14:01,841 I think they're calling themselves the United States. 239 00:14:01,841 --> 00:14:04,844 They broke away from the King of England, but they didn't kill him. 240 00:14:05,177 --> 00:14:08,180 England itself never even fully parted with its monarchy. 241 00:14:08,514 --> 00:14:11,250 There's still a fricking king of England today. 242 00:14:11,250 --> 00:14:14,520 But the people of France not only ended their monarchy, 243 00:14:15,054 --> 00:14:17,823 they created something entirely different. 244 00:14:17,823 --> 00:14:21,327 A democracy in the form of an elected republic 245 00:14:22,561 --> 00:14:23,929 for the French people. 246 00:14:23,929 --> 00:14:26,932 The revolution felt like a totally new world. 247 00:14:27,233 --> 00:14:30,903 And the people decided, you know, let's get crazy with this thing. 248 00:14:31,470 --> 00:14:34,440 Not only are we going to have a new form of government, 249 00:14:34,440 --> 00:14:37,176 we need a whole new calendar. 250 00:14:37,176 --> 00:14:41,714 Yeah, yeah, it's it's no longer going to be 1789 in the year of our Lord. 251 00:14:41,747 --> 00:14:44,116 That's so Christian and King. 252 00:14:44,116 --> 00:14:45,584 That's old news now. 253 00:14:45,584 --> 00:14:47,987 This is year one. 254 00:14:47,987 --> 00:14:51,523 And we're not calling the months January, February and March anymore. 255 00:14:51,523 --> 00:14:53,158 Now, from now on. 256 00:14:53,158 --> 00:14:58,597 The months will be known as, grape harvest. 257 00:14:58,764 --> 00:14:59,665 Yeah, yeah. 258 00:14:59,665 --> 00:15:02,368 Followed by missed months. 259 00:15:02,368 --> 00:15:05,371 Then frost months and so on. 260 00:15:05,671 --> 00:15:08,040 The days will be ten hours long, 261 00:15:08,040 --> 00:15:11,143 and, weeks will last for ten days. 262 00:15:11,176 --> 00:15:11,844 Oh, yeah. Yeah. 263 00:15:11,844 --> 00:15:17,449 And each day will be named after a plant or flower or fruit. 264 00:15:17,883 --> 00:15:20,753 So we'll call today Apple Day. 265 00:15:20,753 --> 00:15:21,420 Yeah. That's good. 266 00:15:21,420 --> 00:15:21,854 That's good. 267 00:15:21,854 --> 00:15:25,157 Tomorrow will be celery day. 268 00:15:25,457 --> 00:15:27,526 And then. Oh, of course, pear day. 269 00:15:27,526 --> 00:15:29,828 Oh, but what if we named each fifth day 270 00:15:29,828 --> 00:15:34,199 after an animal like, Goose Day or Turkey Day or 271 00:15:35,167 --> 00:15:37,202 or, Oh, donkey day. 272 00:15:37,202 --> 00:15:39,305 I mean, everybody's going to love donkey Day, right? 273 00:15:39,305 --> 00:15:41,840 Okay, who? 274 00:15:41,840 --> 00:15:45,811 Oh. And we'll name every 10th day after a farming tool like, plow day 275 00:15:46,211 --> 00:15:49,648 or shovel day, or my personal favorite, barrel day. 276 00:15:50,349 --> 00:15:52,952 Yeah, it's pretty good. Pretty good. 277 00:15:52,952 --> 00:15:56,155 The new French Republic actually used this calendar 278 00:15:56,188 --> 00:15:59,658 from 1792 to 1806. 279 00:16:00,159 --> 00:16:01,327 Or. Oh. Sorry. 280 00:16:01,327 --> 00:16:04,229 From year one to year 14. 281 00:16:04,229 --> 00:16:07,232 And, honestly, I think we should go back to it. 282 00:16:08,701 --> 00:16:11,403 And the French Revolution didn't just have new ideas 283 00:16:11,403 --> 00:16:14,707 on how to structure society or write new calendars. 284 00:16:15,140 --> 00:16:18,677 It had some pretty innovative ideas on how to kill people to. 285 00:16:19,545 --> 00:16:24,016 This was thanks to a brand new invention, the guillotine, which consisted 286 00:16:24,016 --> 00:16:28,153 of a heavy steel blade quickly severing someone's head from their body. 287 00:16:28,887 --> 00:16:32,458 While that might seem like a horrific way to go, at the time, 288 00:16:32,458 --> 00:16:35,461 it was actually considered the humane alternative. 289 00:16:35,928 --> 00:16:38,364 Unlike traditional forms of execution 290 00:16:38,364 --> 00:16:41,500 like hanging or beheading by an ax, 291 00:16:42,034 --> 00:16:45,371 at least the guillotine guaranteed a swift and sudden death. 292 00:16:47,172 --> 00:16:48,774 But before long, 293 00:16:48,774 --> 00:16:51,777 things got a little out of hand. 294 00:16:52,244 --> 00:16:56,081 Because how can you know who really supports the revolution 295 00:16:56,348 --> 00:16:58,050 and who's just faking it? 296 00:16:58,050 --> 00:17:02,221 Well, Maximilien Robespierre emerged as one of the most influential 297 00:17:02,221 --> 00:17:07,226 revolutionaries, earning his reputation as the master of the blame game. 298 00:17:07,726 --> 00:17:08,861 Hey, Jack. 299 00:17:08,861 --> 00:17:12,231 The innkeeper says he misses the king, Robespierre declared. 300 00:17:12,998 --> 00:17:16,001 So Jack was sentenced to death 301 00:17:16,769 --> 00:17:19,171 and. And Marc Andre the baker. 302 00:17:19,171 --> 00:17:22,341 She was baking pastries in the shape of Marie Antoinette's face. 303 00:17:22,775 --> 00:17:25,210 That's not very revolutionary. 304 00:17:25,210 --> 00:17:28,213 And so, Marc Andre was also put to death. 305 00:17:30,149 --> 00:17:31,250 But one day, 306 00:17:31,250 --> 00:17:34,820 someone accused Robespierre of not being revolutionary enough. 307 00:17:35,220 --> 00:17:39,691 And Robespierre, the expert finger pointer, took his turn at the guillotine. 308 00:17:39,725 --> 00:17:42,728 No, no, no. 309 00:17:45,631 --> 00:17:48,000 Once the revolution began, 310 00:17:48,000 --> 00:17:51,937 it was like a dam bursting from years of pent up suicidal anger. 311 00:17:52,805 --> 00:17:55,808 The worst of it was called the Reign of Terror. 312 00:17:55,874 --> 00:17:58,744 At its height, about 300,000 313 00:17:58,744 --> 00:18:01,747 people all over France were arrested. 314 00:18:01,780 --> 00:18:04,550 Half the population of Paris at the time, 315 00:18:04,550 --> 00:18:08,487 17,000 were executed, and 10,000 suffered 316 00:18:08,620 --> 00:18:11,957 slow deaths in the dungeons without ever getting a try. 317 00:18:13,158 --> 00:18:16,095 Even the people who initially wanted a revolution 318 00:18:16,095 --> 00:18:19,965 were now pretty horrified at how things had spiraled out of control. 319 00:18:21,366 --> 00:18:24,369 How dare you say that? 320 00:18:24,703 --> 00:18:27,706 What do we do when we don't 321 00:18:28,474 --> 00:18:30,042 behold a whore? 322 00:18:30,042 --> 00:18:32,444 What does this have to do with the political spectrum? 323 00:18:32,444 --> 00:18:35,447 The left wing and the right wing? 324 00:18:35,581 --> 00:18:37,649 Well, when the revolution was first 325 00:18:37,649 --> 00:18:40,652 breaking out to avert further chaos, 326 00:18:41,086 --> 00:18:45,290 a National Assembly was assembled. 327 00:18:51,763 --> 00:18:54,433 Wealthy commoners from across the country, 328 00:18:54,433 --> 00:18:58,670 along with the members of the nobility and clergy, gathered in a large meeting 329 00:18:58,670 --> 00:19:02,774 room to debate how much power King Louis the 16th should have. 330 00:19:03,575 --> 00:19:05,911 Some declared nun viva 331 00:19:05,911 --> 00:19:08,914 la revolution, while others were aghast. 332 00:19:09,314 --> 00:19:10,415 What are you talking about? 333 00:19:10,415 --> 00:19:12,751 King who is the best? 334 00:19:12,751 --> 00:19:16,255 As the debate reached, two major factions emerged. 335 00:19:16,755 --> 00:19:19,758 Those for revolution and those against 336 00:19:20,192 --> 00:19:23,262 people started seeding themselves with those they agreed with. 337 00:19:24,029 --> 00:19:28,667 And in this large meeting room, the seating was divided into two physical 338 00:19:28,667 --> 00:19:30,068 weights. 339 00:19:30,068 --> 00:19:33,272 One member of the nobility who was actually there wrote, quote, 340 00:19:34,106 --> 00:19:38,477 I tried to sit in different parts of the hall and not to adopt any market spot 341 00:19:38,977 --> 00:19:41,980 so as to remain more the master of my opinion. 342 00:19:42,247 --> 00:19:45,284 But I was compelled absolutely to abandon the left, 343 00:19:45,684 --> 00:19:48,353 or else be condemned always to vote alone, 344 00:19:48,353 --> 00:19:50,989 and thus be subjected to jeers from the galleries. 345 00:19:53,525 --> 00:19:55,260 Those for the revolution 346 00:19:55,260 --> 00:19:58,797 eventually found themselves sitting on the left wing of the room. 347 00:19:59,298 --> 00:20:02,501 And those for monarchy settled down on the right. 348 00:20:03,769 --> 00:20:06,438 And that is where we get the terms 349 00:20:06,438 --> 00:20:09,441 left wing and right wing. 350 00:20:12,711 --> 00:20:15,781 So the French Revolution was when the left wing and right 351 00:20:15,781 --> 00:20:19,251 wing were first introduced into our political vocabulary. 352 00:20:19,818 --> 00:20:22,821 And shortly after, a couple more terms were added 353 00:20:23,088 --> 00:20:26,625 that you'll recognize liberal and conservative, 354 00:20:27,893 --> 00:20:28,594 of course. 355 00:20:28,594 --> 00:20:31,797 Liberal and conservative tendencies have always existed. 356 00:20:32,130 --> 00:20:33,031 If you mean those 357 00:20:33,031 --> 00:20:36,368 who want to stick with tradition versus those who want to change it. 358 00:20:36,868 --> 00:20:41,006 But in the wake of the French Revolution, those personal tendencies 359 00:20:41,340 --> 00:20:44,343 evolved into something new, something 360 00:20:44,343 --> 00:20:47,312 the French call an ideology. 361 00:20:47,813 --> 00:20:52,050 The word ideology was actually first coined in a French prison 362 00:20:52,351 --> 00:20:56,588 by an aristocratic philosopher awaiting trial during the Reign of Terror. 363 00:20:57,389 --> 00:21:01,393 He defined ideology as the science of ideas. 364 00:21:02,461 --> 00:21:03,662 But what the heck? 365 00:21:03,662 --> 00:21:06,365 What do you mean ideology was invented? 366 00:21:06,365 --> 00:21:09,368 Having people always had a set of ideas or theories. 367 00:21:09,868 --> 00:21:14,806 Well, Emmanuel Wallerstein in World Systems Analysis argues that, quote, 368 00:21:15,407 --> 00:21:19,111 an ideology is more than a set of ideas or theories. 369 00:21:19,611 --> 00:21:22,614 It is more than a moral commitment or a worldview. 370 00:21:22,681 --> 00:21:26,218 It is a coherent strategy in the social arena 371 00:21:26,218 --> 00:21:30,188 from which one can draw quite specific political conclusions. 372 00:21:31,023 --> 00:21:34,092 In this sense, one did not need ideologies 373 00:21:34,092 --> 00:21:38,230 in previous world systems, or indeed even in the modern world system 374 00:21:38,463 --> 00:21:42,601 before the concept of the normality of change, unquote. 375 00:21:44,369 --> 00:21:47,472 He's essentially saying that when living under a monarchy, 376 00:21:48,006 --> 00:21:52,044 a system where tradition is normal, but change isn't. 377 00:21:52,577 --> 00:21:54,446 You don't need an ideology. 378 00:21:54,446 --> 00:21:57,482 You just need to know if you're for the king or against the king. 379 00:21:58,250 --> 00:22:02,387 But when there's no longer a king and social and political change becomes 380 00:22:02,387 --> 00:22:06,658 normal, you have to have an opinion on what kind of change you want. 381 00:22:07,392 --> 00:22:09,261 And these camps formed. 382 00:22:09,261 --> 00:22:12,898 The first ideological camp that emerged was called. 383 00:22:13,365 --> 00:22:15,834 Thank God I took French in high school, so I could pronounce this 384 00:22:16,835 --> 00:22:19,838 conservatism. 385 00:22:20,405 --> 00:22:21,073 Or for you 386 00:22:21,073 --> 00:22:24,076 English speakers out there, conservatism. 387 00:22:24,543 --> 00:22:26,778 You may sometimes hear conservatives 388 00:22:26,778 --> 00:22:29,781 referred to as reactionary. 389 00:22:30,015 --> 00:22:33,385 This isn't because conservatives just go around reacting to everything. 390 00:22:33,685 --> 00:22:37,856 It's because conservatism originally formed in reaction 391 00:22:37,856 --> 00:22:39,858 to the French Revolution. 392 00:22:39,858 --> 00:22:43,128 Just like the people who sat on the right wing in the National Assembly, 393 00:22:43,495 --> 00:22:46,498 the conservative ideology essentially went, 394 00:22:46,531 --> 00:22:49,501 do you see what frickin happens when there's not a king? 395 00:22:50,068 --> 00:22:52,971 You say you don't like kings, but what about the people? 396 00:22:52,971 --> 00:22:54,439 Remember the reign of terror? 397 00:22:54,439 --> 00:22:56,742 Did you see how crazy people got? 398 00:22:56,742 --> 00:22:59,745 So that was right wing conservatism perspective. 399 00:23:00,245 --> 00:23:03,548 But then something a little ironic happened. 400 00:23:04,683 --> 00:23:06,051 There was this one guy. 401 00:23:06,051 --> 00:23:08,787 His name was Napoleon. 402 00:23:08,787 --> 00:23:11,790 Even though 403 00:23:12,524 --> 00:23:16,828 this was a few years after the reign of Terror, Napoleon staged 404 00:23:16,828 --> 00:23:20,132 a coup d'etat, overthrew the young French Republic, 405 00:23:20,665 --> 00:23:23,635 and named himself the Emperor. 406 00:23:23,635 --> 00:23:26,638 Now, you might be thinking conservative would love this. 407 00:23:26,638 --> 00:23:28,407 They wanted the king, after all. 408 00:23:28,407 --> 00:23:30,842 But Napoleon would have been the first to tell you. 409 00:23:30,842 --> 00:23:32,811 No, no. I'm not a king. 410 00:23:32,811 --> 00:23:34,012 This isn't a monarchy. 411 00:23:34,012 --> 00:23:35,414 I'm for the revolution. 412 00:23:35,414 --> 00:23:37,282 Yeah, I love republics. 413 00:23:37,282 --> 00:23:40,018 Everyone should have a republic. What? 414 00:23:40,018 --> 00:23:42,487 Just because I'm an emperor, I can't love republics. 415 00:23:42,487 --> 00:23:43,755 Oh! Come on. 416 00:23:43,755 --> 00:23:46,091 An emperor and a king are totally different things. 417 00:23:47,325 --> 00:23:47,959 An emperor? 418 00:23:47,959 --> 00:23:52,998 Napoleon was such a firm believer of liberté, égalité, fraternité 419 00:23:53,398 --> 00:23:55,367 that he decided the rest of Europe 420 00:23:55,367 --> 00:23:58,370 needed a generous helping of the French Revolution as well. 421 00:23:58,570 --> 00:24:02,040 So Napoleon and his army, when Galvan ING across Europe, 422 00:24:02,574 --> 00:24:07,512 they invaded Spain, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Rome, 423 00:24:07,846 --> 00:24:11,149 Germany and Italy didn't exist yet, or they would have invaded them to. 424 00:24:21,493 --> 00:24:22,828 Now, while Napoleon's 425 00:24:22,828 --> 00:24:25,831 France wasn't really a democracy anymore, 426 00:24:26,131 --> 00:24:30,502 even though it barely had been won since voting rights were limited, Napoleon 427 00:24:30,502 --> 00:24:34,506 at least spread the idea of democracy to other European countries. 428 00:24:35,540 --> 00:24:38,543 And while many people resented being invaded. 429 00:24:38,643 --> 00:24:41,880 Plenty of folks thought this whole democracy thing was actually 430 00:24:41,880 --> 00:24:43,215 not a bad idea. 431 00:24:43,215 --> 00:24:46,451 But as Napoleon spread revolutionary ideas across Europe, 432 00:24:46,852 --> 00:24:52,357 he accidentally spread something else as well a conservative backlash. 433 00:24:53,325 --> 00:24:55,360 The reign of Terror was bad, 434 00:24:55,360 --> 00:24:57,896 but at least the chaos was confined to France. 435 00:24:57,896 --> 00:25:00,899 Now the plan's making this everyone's problem. 436 00:25:01,166 --> 00:25:01,967 And it wasn't just. 437 00:25:01,967 --> 00:25:04,970 The leaders of the invaded countries were resentful. 438 00:25:05,103 --> 00:25:06,238 Plenty of commoners 439 00:25:06,238 --> 00:25:09,574 resented the break down of age old traditions and social order, too. 440 00:25:10,742 --> 00:25:14,379 It was around this time that philosophers like Edmund Burke 441 00:25:14,746 --> 00:25:18,049 helped crystallize conservatism into an ideology. 442 00:25:18,917 --> 00:25:21,920 Burke was skeptical that much good would come from a republic 443 00:25:22,254 --> 00:25:25,190 where leaders campaigned to be elected. 444 00:25:25,190 --> 00:25:28,593 In his book reflections on the Revolution in France, 445 00:25:28,860 --> 00:25:32,197 he wrote, quote, when the leaders choose 446 00:25:32,197 --> 00:25:37,135 to make themselves bidders at an auction of popularity, their talents 447 00:25:37,469 --> 00:25:40,772 in the construction of the state will be of no service. 448 00:25:41,573 --> 00:25:44,843 They will become flatterers instead of legislators. 449 00:25:45,310 --> 00:25:48,313 The instruments, not the guides of the people, 450 00:25:48,947 --> 00:25:52,250 if any of them should happen to propose a scheme of liberty. 451 00:25:52,517 --> 00:25:56,421 Soberly limited and defined with proper qualifications, 452 00:25:57,088 --> 00:26:00,091 he will be immediately outbid by his competitors, 453 00:26:00,425 --> 00:26:04,162 who will produce something more splendidly popular, unquote. 454 00:26:05,330 --> 00:26:06,031 Beyond being 455 00:26:06,031 --> 00:26:10,068 skeptical of elections as popularity contests, Burke 456 00:26:10,068 --> 00:26:14,306 was wary of sudden change and believed tradition should be upheld. 457 00:26:15,440 --> 00:26:19,477 He also kind of calls commoners a Swedish multitude at one point. 458 00:26:19,711 --> 00:26:22,681 But Burke would say, well, look at what happened in France. 459 00:26:22,881 --> 00:26:26,551 Clearly, the average person can't be trusted to make wise decisions 460 00:26:27,619 --> 00:26:29,554 in world systems analysis. 461 00:26:29,554 --> 00:26:33,358 Wallerstein emphasizes, quote, faith in hierarchy 462 00:26:33,625 --> 00:26:39,030 as both inevitable and desirable is the hallmark of conservatism, unquote. 463 00:26:39,864 --> 00:26:42,133 And for conservatives of this time, 464 00:26:42,133 --> 00:26:44,903 hierarchy was not just arbitrary. 465 00:26:44,903 --> 00:26:47,305 It's divinely ordained. 466 00:26:47,305 --> 00:26:49,240 So conservatives agreed. 467 00:26:49,240 --> 00:26:52,243 We definitely need a king. 468 00:26:52,577 --> 00:26:54,412 Well, I have good news for conservatives. 469 00:26:54,412 --> 00:27:00,151 Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the famous Battle of Waterloo, 470 00:27:00,719 --> 00:27:02,721 forcing him to give up his throne, 471 00:27:02,721 --> 00:27:06,224 his crown, and probably most painfully, his pride. 472 00:27:07,559 --> 00:27:08,126 The guy who 473 00:27:08,126 --> 00:27:11,396 once supported the revolution only to make himself emperor 474 00:27:11,663 --> 00:27:16,201 was exiled to Saint Helena, a tiny island in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, 475 00:27:16,568 --> 00:27:19,571 where he spent the rest of his days. 476 00:27:20,839 --> 00:27:22,641 After the fall of Napoleon, 477 00:27:22,641 --> 00:27:26,945 the most powerful monarchies of Europe gathered for the Congress of Vienna. 478 00:27:27,412 --> 00:27:30,181 Come on, let's go. Wasn't it? 479 00:27:30,181 --> 00:27:33,184 Then check out this place. 480 00:27:33,451 --> 00:27:36,421 Nice sturdy cones. Oh, 481 00:27:36,988 --> 00:27:39,991 this place is decked out in luxurious furnishings. 482 00:27:40,025 --> 00:27:43,028 Look by the brilliant chandeliers. 483 00:27:43,028 --> 00:27:45,230 Oh, man. All the big names are here. 484 00:27:45,230 --> 00:27:47,832 Emperor Francis, the first of Austria, 485 00:27:47,832 --> 00:27:50,435 saw Alexander the first Russia. 486 00:27:50,435 --> 00:27:53,438 King Frederick William the third of Prussia. 487 00:27:53,571 --> 00:27:56,107 And Lord Castlereagh of Britain. 488 00:27:56,107 --> 00:27:58,443 And these guys are discussing how to make sure 489 00:27:58,443 --> 00:28:01,479 that kind of French chaos never happens again. 490 00:28:02,013 --> 00:28:04,616 Sounds like they're all totally on the same page. 491 00:28:04,616 --> 00:28:05,483 I sounded kind of cute. 492 00:28:05,483 --> 00:28:07,185 When despots get along. 493 00:28:07,185 --> 00:28:08,486 They all agree. 494 00:28:08,486 --> 00:28:11,489 France needs a normal fricking king again. 495 00:28:11,723 --> 00:28:14,726 But it shouldn't just be some random guy like Napoleon. 496 00:28:15,160 --> 00:28:17,829 The King is supposed to be ordained by God. 497 00:28:17,829 --> 00:28:20,832 That's why the king's son is usually the next in line. 498 00:28:21,232 --> 00:28:22,801 Shh. Okay. The talking. 499 00:28:23,768 --> 00:28:25,203 Okay, okay. 500 00:28:25,203 --> 00:28:27,272 Next son. Next son. 501 00:28:27,272 --> 00:28:30,008 Who is only the 16th. Next son. 502 00:28:30,008 --> 00:28:31,843 Oh, God. What? 503 00:28:31,843 --> 00:28:35,413 Louis the 17th died in a French prison cell during the revolution. 504 00:28:35,947 --> 00:28:37,382 Jesus. 505 00:28:37,382 --> 00:28:39,050 Okay. Who's next? 506 00:28:39,050 --> 00:28:40,652 Any other Louie's out there? 507 00:28:40,652 --> 00:28:42,120 Oh. That's right. Yeah. 508 00:28:42,120 --> 00:28:44,089 There's Louie, the 16th brother. 509 00:28:44,089 --> 00:28:45,924 Also named Louie. Perfect. 510 00:28:45,924 --> 00:28:47,192 What are the chances? 511 00:28:47,192 --> 00:28:47,659 We'll come. 512 00:28:47,659 --> 00:28:48,727 Louie the 18th. 513 00:28:48,727 --> 00:28:51,730 And finally, all will be back to normal. 514 00:28:52,297 --> 00:28:53,898 And it kind of was. 515 00:28:53,898 --> 00:28:58,002 The French monarchy was restored, but it was never quite the same. 516 00:28:58,336 --> 00:29:03,274 Louis the 18th knew his ascension to the throne wasn't exactly popular. 517 00:29:03,641 --> 00:29:08,113 So to compromise, he agreed to make it a constitutional monarchy. 518 00:29:08,813 --> 00:29:11,483 That meant there'd be some limits to his power 519 00:29:11,483 --> 00:29:14,486 and to be a parliament that even commoners could be elected to. 520 00:29:15,253 --> 00:29:19,224 You had to be a rich, property owning commoner, of course, and also a man. 521 00:29:19,758 --> 00:29:21,392 But there was one thing. 522 00:29:21,392 --> 00:29:24,162 Louis the 18th was not compromising on. 523 00:29:24,162 --> 00:29:27,165 We're finally getting rid of that stupid calendar. 524 00:29:27,465 --> 00:29:28,666 What day is it? 525 00:29:28,666 --> 00:29:31,603 Donkey day. No, it. It's Wednesday. 526 00:29:31,603 --> 00:29:32,837 We're calling it Wednesday again. 527 00:29:33,872 --> 00:29:36,307 But even though the French Revolution failed, 528 00:29:36,307 --> 00:29:39,611 it proved that monarchy wasn't invincible. 529 00:29:40,378 --> 00:29:42,447 Change was possible. 530 00:29:42,447 --> 00:29:44,816 Other countries conservatives were concerned 531 00:29:44,816 --> 00:29:47,819 about France's influence on the rest of Europe. 532 00:29:48,386 --> 00:29:52,791 Conservative Prince Clemens von Mednick of Austria remarked, quote, 533 00:29:53,458 --> 00:29:56,628 When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold. 534 00:29:57,462 --> 00:29:59,964 Many conservative leaders, like Mednick, 535 00:29:59,964 --> 00:30:03,101 feared that change inevitably leads to revolution. 536 00:30:03,735 --> 00:30:06,738 So they did everything they could to resist it. 537 00:30:07,272 --> 00:30:11,209 However, there was another response to the fear of revolution. 538 00:30:11,843 --> 00:30:13,311 Reform. 539 00:30:13,311 --> 00:30:17,782 If revolution was a kind of sickness that could spread to others, 540 00:30:18,049 --> 00:30:23,154 then as Mike Duncan, author and host of The Revolutions podcast, explains. 541 00:30:23,621 --> 00:30:27,559 Reformers argued that to prevent a revolution, governments 542 00:30:27,559 --> 00:30:30,962 needed a sort of inoculation to revolution. 543 00:30:31,429 --> 00:30:34,098 A small dose of change before 544 00:30:34,098 --> 00:30:37,101 it became a deadly contagion. 545 00:30:37,202 --> 00:30:40,471 This was the birth of the second ideology. 546 00:30:41,272 --> 00:30:42,006 Liberalism. 547 00:30:45,076 --> 00:30:48,112 Conservatism was a reaction to the French Revolution, 548 00:30:48,513 --> 00:30:51,616 and the liberalism was a reaction to conservatism. 549 00:30:52,951 --> 00:30:55,687 Liberals heard the conservative argument and went, whoa, whoa whoa, 550 00:30:55,687 --> 00:30:57,088 hold on, guys, hold on. 551 00:30:57,088 --> 00:30:59,591 I actually think it's good that change happened. 552 00:30:59,591 --> 00:31:01,593 I agree, I agree. The French revolution. 553 00:31:01,593 --> 00:31:03,728 Holy crap. That was nuts. 554 00:31:03,728 --> 00:31:06,064 But you want to know why it got so out of hand? 555 00:31:06,064 --> 00:31:09,067 It's because we didn't have a democratic mechanism 556 00:31:09,100 --> 00:31:12,570 to allow gradual change to happen over time. 557 00:31:13,204 --> 00:31:17,642 We need to have some kind of balanced, moderate and civil process 558 00:31:17,942 --> 00:31:21,079 that can address the issues people are concerned with. 559 00:31:22,213 --> 00:31:25,917 The liberals were more or less content with Louis the eighteenths 560 00:31:26,117 --> 00:31:30,121 constitutional monarchy and whatever they weren't content with. 561 00:31:30,455 --> 00:31:33,458 They at least now had a way to make their voices heard, 562 00:31:33,791 --> 00:31:36,194 even if their voices weren't always listened to. 563 00:31:36,194 --> 00:31:40,265 And like conservatism, liberalism spread across Europe. 564 00:31:41,132 --> 00:31:46,170 The first group to actually use the term liberal as a political label were Spanish 565 00:31:46,170 --> 00:31:50,074 citizens who pushed for their own constitution in 1812. 566 00:31:50,875 --> 00:31:53,378 The term liberalism first appeared 567 00:31:53,378 --> 00:31:56,581 in English a few years later, in 1815. 568 00:31:58,049 --> 00:31:59,984 So the 1820s 569 00:31:59,984 --> 00:32:04,956 became the 1830s, and the 1830s became the 1840s. 570 00:32:04,956 --> 00:32:08,192 In a decades to a new type of building was developed. 571 00:32:08,393 --> 00:32:11,162 It was called a factory, where 572 00:32:11,162 --> 00:32:14,165 things could be manufactured quickly on a mass scale. 573 00:32:14,766 --> 00:32:17,769 These factories began popping up all over Europe. 574 00:32:17,802 --> 00:32:22,140 And this new contraption, called a locomotive train, slithered 575 00:32:22,140 --> 00:32:25,710 like a snake on tracks carrying passengers at unthinkable 576 00:32:25,710 --> 00:32:28,713 speeds, even up to 30mph. 577 00:32:29,147 --> 00:32:32,283 Some critics worried whether such speeds would injure the human brain. 578 00:32:33,251 --> 00:32:37,922 Meanwhile, this starchy vegetable from the Andes mountains in South America, 579 00:32:38,156 --> 00:32:41,726 the potato became a major food staple across Europe. 580 00:32:42,226 --> 00:32:45,763 It was planted everywhere from Ireland to Russia 581 00:32:46,097 --> 00:32:49,133 and became the primary food source for most peasants. 582 00:32:50,068 --> 00:32:53,871 But this kind of monoculture, where a single crop is planted 583 00:32:53,871 --> 00:32:58,710 as far as the eye can see, can be vulnerable to disease like blight. 584 00:32:59,544 --> 00:33:01,279 And that's exactly what happened. 585 00:33:01,279 --> 00:33:04,549 You've heard of the Irish Potato famine, but mass starvation wasn't 586 00:33:04,549 --> 00:33:06,050 limited to Ireland. 587 00:33:06,050 --> 00:33:10,221 The 1840s in Europe started to be called the Hungry 40s. 588 00:33:10,888 --> 00:33:14,425 Widespread famine was followed by a continent wide recession 589 00:33:14,692 --> 00:33:18,463 and financial crisis, which only made the food shortages worse. 590 00:33:19,530 --> 00:33:22,533 And though the French Revolution faded from living memory 591 00:33:22,800 --> 00:33:26,270 to something you heard about from your grandparents or read in history 592 00:33:26,270 --> 00:33:29,741 books, it stayed alive in many people's minds. 593 00:33:30,308 --> 00:33:33,177 Everyone had their own opinion on the French Revolution 594 00:33:33,177 --> 00:33:37,648 as far east as Poland, north Sweden and south of Sicily. 595 00:33:38,016 --> 00:33:41,552 Nobles, the wealthy, even some commoners, had a stance. 596 00:33:41,986 --> 00:33:45,623 Was it a horrible atrocity or something that didn't go far enough? 597 00:33:46,491 --> 00:33:50,361 Was the reign of terror inevitable or a tragic mistake? 598 00:33:51,029 --> 00:33:55,633 Was the French Revolution an inspiration or cautionary tale? 599 00:33:56,334 --> 00:33:58,770 If Europe celebrated Thanksgiving, this would be 600 00:33:58,770 --> 00:34:01,773 one of those topics not to bring up with your family. 601 00:34:01,873 --> 00:34:03,841 And in every European country. 602 00:34:03,841 --> 00:34:07,578 The undeniable question was, Will a revolution 603 00:34:07,879 --> 00:34:10,882 happen here? 604 00:34:11,549 --> 00:34:12,850 Right wing conservatives 605 00:34:12,850 --> 00:34:16,521 did everything they could to ensure the answer was no. 606 00:34:17,288 --> 00:34:20,191 Many liberals argued that this fear of revolution 607 00:34:20,191 --> 00:34:23,161 was exactly why monarchies should embrace reform. 608 00:34:23,861 --> 00:34:26,798 But liberals did not exactly represent what had been 609 00:34:26,798 --> 00:34:29,801 the actual left wing of the French National Assembly. 610 00:34:30,101 --> 00:34:33,104 You know, the people in favor of revolution. 611 00:34:33,438 --> 00:34:37,141 Since the National Assembly, the revolutionaries have been pushed 612 00:34:37,141 --> 00:34:41,012 to the fringes of political discourse, meeting in cafes 613 00:34:41,179 --> 00:34:44,182 or muttering under their breaths in the fields and factories. 614 00:34:44,882 --> 00:34:47,852 It was in these spaces that the left wing 615 00:34:48,086 --> 00:34:52,223 evolved into a third ideology radicalism. 616 00:34:52,457 --> 00:34:57,462 And radicalism is a confusing word 617 00:34:57,462 --> 00:35:02,200 because in this historical context, it doesn't just mean extremism. 618 00:35:02,667 --> 00:35:05,169 It's actually its own ideology. 619 00:35:05,169 --> 00:35:07,371 There can be extremists in any ideology. 620 00:35:08,473 --> 00:35:09,540 And radicalism 621 00:35:09,540 --> 00:35:12,910 wasn't just about revolution for the sake of revolution. 622 00:35:13,478 --> 00:35:17,048 It was an ideology centered around specific ideals 623 00:35:17,482 --> 00:35:21,853 like social and economic equality, the separation of church and state, 624 00:35:22,353 --> 00:35:25,756 and expanding who's allowed to participate in government. 625 00:35:26,791 --> 00:35:29,060 But when conservative French politician 626 00:35:29,060 --> 00:35:34,132 Francois Geisel heard the complaints that only the rich were able to participate 627 00:35:34,132 --> 00:35:38,569 in the new French government, Jizo responded, on which they view 628 00:35:39,370 --> 00:35:42,140 get rich. 629 00:35:42,140 --> 00:35:46,177 But while the left wing radicals may have held no real positions of power, 630 00:35:46,677 --> 00:35:49,514 their ideas began to spread. 631 00:35:49,514 --> 00:35:53,251 At the beginning of 1848, a little pamphlet was published 632 00:35:53,551 --> 00:35:56,387 called The Communist Manifesto, 633 00:35:56,387 --> 00:35:59,390 written by Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. 634 00:35:59,824 --> 00:36:02,827 It argued that Europe's power struggle 635 00:36:02,827 --> 00:36:05,830 wasn't just between the king and his subjects, 636 00:36:05,863 --> 00:36:09,901 but between the wealthy bourgeoisie and the poor proletariat. 637 00:36:11,035 --> 00:36:12,837 Since the French Revolution, 638 00:36:12,837 --> 00:36:15,840 conservatives had dominated politics across Europe. 639 00:36:16,407 --> 00:36:19,410 Liberals held some influence, but it was pretty limited. 640 00:36:20,111 --> 00:36:23,414 Radicals could only theorize from pamphlets and book clubs, 641 00:36:24,315 --> 00:36:26,717 but that was about to change. 642 00:36:26,717 --> 00:36:29,387 Marx and Engels posited that a revolution 643 00:36:29,387 --> 00:36:32,390 of the proletariat wasn't just necessary. 644 00:36:32,790 --> 00:36:35,092 It was inevitable. 645 00:36:35,092 --> 00:36:38,396 Conservative leaders, for the most part, were not too worried. 646 00:36:39,030 --> 00:36:41,365 It's just radicals being radicals. 647 00:36:41,365 --> 00:36:44,068 But in January 1848, 648 00:36:44,068 --> 00:36:47,138 Alexis de Tocqueville, the Minister of Foreign affairs 649 00:36:47,138 --> 00:36:51,008 in the French government, spoke before his colleagues of the legislature 650 00:36:51,475 --> 00:36:54,478 and issued a grave warning. 651 00:36:55,346 --> 00:36:56,814 Quote, 652 00:36:56,814 --> 00:37:00,451 I am told that there is no danger because there are no rights. 653 00:37:01,619 --> 00:37:04,522 I am told that because there is no visible disorder 654 00:37:04,522 --> 00:37:08,492 on the surface of society, there is no revolution at hand. 655 00:37:09,327 --> 00:37:13,264 Gentlemen, permit me to say that I believe you are mistaken. 656 00:37:13,998 --> 00:37:15,032 True. 657 00:37:15,032 --> 00:37:17,168 There is no actual disorder. 658 00:37:17,168 --> 00:37:19,704 But it has entered deeply into men's minds. 659 00:37:20,671 --> 00:37:21,305 Do you not 660 00:37:21,305 --> 00:37:25,309 see that they are gradually forming opinions and ideas that are destined 661 00:37:25,309 --> 00:37:29,614 not only to upset this or that law, ministry, or even form of government, 662 00:37:30,281 --> 00:37:32,717 but society itself, 663 00:37:32,717 --> 00:37:36,821 until it totters upon the foundations on which it rests today. 664 00:37:37,488 --> 00:37:40,491 Do you not listen to what they say to themselves each day? 665 00:37:40,791 --> 00:37:43,561 Do you not hear them repeating unceasingly, 666 00:37:43,561 --> 00:37:47,498 that all that is above them is incapable and unworthy of governing them? 667 00:37:48,232 --> 00:37:50,668 That the distribution of goods prevalent 668 00:37:50,668 --> 00:37:53,671 until now throughout the world is unjust? 669 00:37:54,138 --> 00:37:58,209 That property rests on a foundation that is not an equitable one. 670 00:38:00,011 --> 00:38:03,948 And do you not realize that when such opinions take root, 671 00:38:04,448 --> 00:38:07,451 when they spread in an almost universal manner, 672 00:38:08,019 --> 00:38:10,721 when they sink deeply into the masses, 673 00:38:10,721 --> 00:38:14,025 they are bound to bring with them sooner or later. 674 00:38:14,492 --> 00:38:18,362 I know not when or how a most formidable revolution. 675 00:38:19,830 --> 00:38:23,067 This, gentlemen, is my profound conviction. 676 00:38:23,868 --> 00:38:26,871 I believe that we are at this moment 677 00:38:27,071 --> 00:38:30,074 sleeping on a volcano. 678 00:38:31,509 --> 00:38:32,810 And turned out 679 00:38:32,810 --> 00:38:35,546 that the Tocqueville nailed it. 680 00:38:35,546 --> 00:38:38,549 The volcano was about to erupt. 681 00:38:41,352 --> 00:38:43,321 Let us see it 682 00:38:43,321 --> 00:38:44,555 one day. 683 00:38:44,555 --> 00:38:47,325 A mysterious poster appeared on the narrow 684 00:38:47,325 --> 00:38:51,028 cobblestone streets of Palermo, Sicily, which, 685 00:38:51,095 --> 00:38:54,098 like most of Europe, was under monarchical rule. 686 00:38:55,099 --> 00:38:57,234 The poster read, quote, 687 00:38:57,234 --> 00:38:59,870 in a few days there will be a revolution. 688 00:38:59,870 --> 00:39:01,539 Sicilians rise up. 689 00:39:01,539 --> 00:39:04,542 Your moment of freedom has arrived, unquote. 690 00:39:05,509 --> 00:39:08,713 It was signed by the Revolutionary Committee. 691 00:39:09,980 --> 00:39:14,051 The thing was, there was no such thing as a revolutionary committee. 692 00:39:14,952 --> 00:39:17,688 Historian Christopher Clark explains 693 00:39:17,688 --> 00:39:20,825 that the poster was a sort of prank by a radical. 694 00:39:21,692 --> 00:39:23,694 Clark goes on, quote. 695 00:39:23,694 --> 00:39:27,064 Sure enough, on the day that the revolution had been announced for 696 00:39:27,465 --> 00:39:30,468 everybody did show up to see what was going to happen. 697 00:39:31,235 --> 00:39:34,238 Nothing happened because nothing had been planned, 698 00:39:34,405 --> 00:39:38,576 except that the troops had been doubled and tripled throughout Palermo, unquote. 699 00:39:39,744 --> 00:39:41,912 So a massive crowd of ordinary people 700 00:39:41,912 --> 00:39:45,282 gathered, waiting to see if a revolution was going to happen. 701 00:39:45,883 --> 00:39:48,853 While soldiers were stationed to prevent the 702 00:39:48,853 --> 00:39:51,288 violence broke out between the two groups. 703 00:39:51,288 --> 00:39:54,392 And this, ironically, was what sparked 704 00:39:54,392 --> 00:39:57,361 the revolution. 705 00:39:58,129 --> 00:39:59,263 Word of the unrest 706 00:39:59,263 --> 00:40:03,100 in Sicily traveled slowly, moving from town to town 707 00:40:03,534 --> 00:40:07,505 as the recently invented telegraph was still not widely available. 708 00:40:08,272 --> 00:40:11,041 So news traveled up the Italian peninsula 709 00:40:11,041 --> 00:40:14,311 across the Alps and eventually reached Paris. 710 00:40:14,645 --> 00:40:17,548 The cultural and political heart of Europe. 711 00:40:17,548 --> 00:40:20,618 When the people of Paris heard the small island of Sicily 712 00:40:20,751 --> 00:40:24,488 was having a revolution, they essentially went, oh, nice job, guys. 713 00:40:24,922 --> 00:40:27,224 But where the revolutionary process. 714 00:40:27,224 --> 00:40:30,227 We'll take it from here. 715 00:40:31,228 --> 00:40:35,099 In 1848, the King of France was Louis Phillipe. 716 00:40:35,099 --> 00:40:36,367 The first? 717 00:40:36,367 --> 00:40:37,368 Yeah. That's right. 718 00:40:37,368 --> 00:40:40,471 Yet another Louis and King Louis Phillipe 719 00:40:40,571 --> 00:40:44,508 feared his subjects getting riled up over what was happening in Sicily. 720 00:40:45,042 --> 00:40:48,679 So he banned an upcoming banquet for liberal reform, 721 00:40:49,113 --> 00:40:53,951 which backfired and riled the people up even more than the banquet ever could. 722 00:40:54,919 --> 00:40:57,121 Thousands of people took to the streets, 723 00:40:57,121 --> 00:41:01,025 building barricades out of whatever they could find tables, chairs, 724 00:41:01,225 --> 00:41:04,995 dressers, pieces of cobblestone or broken down carriages. 725 00:41:05,529 --> 00:41:09,633 These barricades blocked the roads, effectively shutting down Paris. 726 00:41:10,801 --> 00:41:13,003 You can actually see for yourself what this looked like. 727 00:41:13,003 --> 00:41:17,441 One of the earliest photographs ever taken was of a street in Paris 728 00:41:17,641 --> 00:41:20,644 lined with the barricades in 1848, 729 00:41:20,744 --> 00:41:23,747 opposed to pick on a Patreon. 730 00:41:23,948 --> 00:41:27,384 The next day, in an attempt to placate the angry masses, 731 00:41:27,718 --> 00:41:31,121 King Louis Phillipe dismissed his minister, Francois Geisel. 732 00:41:31,655 --> 00:41:34,024 You know the guy who said, get rich? 733 00:41:34,024 --> 00:41:37,027 But even this wasn't enough to stop the revolutionary fervor. 734 00:41:37,862 --> 00:41:40,865 Paris turned into a war zone. 735 00:41:41,131 --> 00:41:44,101 Many soldiers sided with the revolutionaries, 736 00:41:45,336 --> 00:41:47,204 realizing the jig was up. 737 00:41:47,204 --> 00:41:50,274 King Louis Phillipe put on a disguise and fled the country. 738 00:41:51,008 --> 00:41:55,412 In just three days, the people of France yet again toppled their monarchy. 739 00:41:56,280 --> 00:41:59,350 But for the rest of Europe, things were just getting started. 740 00:42:00,618 --> 00:42:02,052 Over in Austria, 741 00:42:02,052 --> 00:42:04,755 students marched on the Imperial Palace 742 00:42:04,755 --> 00:42:07,458 and soldiers opened fire on the crowd. 743 00:42:07,458 --> 00:42:10,361 Workers joined the students in solidarity. 744 00:42:10,361 --> 00:42:13,430 In response, the Austrian emperor promised reforms 745 00:42:13,430 --> 00:42:17,234 and dismissed the conservative chancellor, Prince Clemens von Mednick, 746 00:42:17,568 --> 00:42:20,671 the same guy who said When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold. 747 00:42:21,472 --> 00:42:23,374 Mednick turned out to be right. 748 00:42:23,374 --> 00:42:25,242 Europe was catching a cold. 749 00:42:25,242 --> 00:42:29,013 But little did he know, he would be personally ejected from power, 750 00:42:29,446 --> 00:42:32,449 like a used tissue in a trash can. 751 00:42:32,716 --> 00:42:35,719 And the contagion only continued to spread from there. 752 00:42:36,053 --> 00:42:38,088 Revolts broke out in Hungary. 753 00:42:38,088 --> 00:42:41,091 There was a revolution in Prague, then Romanian. 754 00:42:41,325 --> 00:42:42,326 In Berlin. 755 00:42:42,326 --> 00:42:46,063 A young law student wrote of the euphoria overtaking his city, quote. 756 00:42:46,730 --> 00:42:51,068 My heart was beating so hard I thought it was going to blow a hole in my chest. 757 00:42:51,669 --> 00:42:53,370 I had to get out of my room. 758 00:42:53,370 --> 00:42:56,674 He ran out of his room and joined thousands of others in the soot 759 00:42:56,674 --> 00:42:58,142 covered streets. 760 00:42:58,142 --> 00:43:01,845 Quote I felt I could hear everybody else's hearts beating. 761 00:43:03,013 --> 00:43:03,314 There were 762 00:43:03,314 --> 00:43:06,317 more revolts in Denmark than Poland. 763 00:43:06,417 --> 00:43:10,020 The Pope fled from Rome, and for the first time in almost 2000 764 00:43:10,020 --> 00:43:13,190 years, the people declared a new Roman Republic. 765 00:43:15,392 --> 00:43:18,295 By the end of the spring 1848, 766 00:43:18,295 --> 00:43:21,298 most of Europe had erupted in revolution. 767 00:43:22,933 --> 00:43:24,301 Conservative monarchies 768 00:43:24,301 --> 00:43:27,671 were shocked by how swift and intense the uprisings were. 769 00:43:28,072 --> 00:43:32,509 But within months they organized counter revolutions to regain power. 770 00:43:33,277 --> 00:43:35,713 Austria's emperor asked Russia's czar 771 00:43:35,713 --> 00:43:38,782 to send Russian troops to help crush the Austrian rebellion. 772 00:43:39,617 --> 00:43:41,251 And here's the interesting thing. 773 00:43:41,251 --> 00:43:46,290 So when Russian troops invaded Austria, Russia wasn't at war with Austria. 774 00:43:46,790 --> 00:43:48,325 It was at war with Austria. 775 00:43:48,325 --> 00:43:50,461 The Liberals and radicals. 776 00:43:50,461 --> 00:43:52,529 These weren't wars between countries. 777 00:43:52,529 --> 00:43:55,532 They were wars between ideologies. 778 00:43:55,733 --> 00:43:58,869 Allegiance to ideology proved to be more important 779 00:43:59,169 --> 00:44:00,804 than allegiance to one's own country. 780 00:44:02,439 --> 00:44:04,942 Even though liberals and radicals joined together 781 00:44:04,942 --> 00:44:07,945 for the sake of revolution, they were far from united. 782 00:44:08,412 --> 00:44:12,583 The liberals, mostly made up of the middle and upper classes, wanted 783 00:44:12,583 --> 00:44:16,987 moderate reforms like participation and government for those who own property. 784 00:44:17,821 --> 00:44:20,824 The radicals mostly made up of lower classes 785 00:44:20,824 --> 00:44:24,395 like workers, students and artisans, didn't just want reform. 786 00:44:24,795 --> 00:44:28,198 They wanted an end to the monarchy, a redistribution of wealth 787 00:44:28,432 --> 00:44:31,435 and the right to vote, regardless of owning property. 788 00:44:31,468 --> 00:44:35,572 And while radicals fought on the streets and liberals drafted constitutions 789 00:44:35,572 --> 00:44:40,244 from the safety of meeting rooms, resentment from these ideologies grew. 790 00:44:41,178 --> 00:44:44,114 But this temporary alliance of liberals and radicals 791 00:44:44,114 --> 00:44:46,350 helped win some initial victories. 792 00:44:46,350 --> 00:44:50,120 Prussia, Austria, Tuscany, Switzerland, Denmark and Hungary 793 00:44:50,387 --> 00:44:53,991 all wrote constitutions for the very first time, promising 794 00:44:53,991 --> 00:44:57,861 to expand participation in government and to limit the powers of the king. 795 00:44:59,763 --> 00:45:00,330 The people of 796 00:45:00,330 --> 00:45:04,501 France, after having successfully toppled their monarchy in just three days, 797 00:45:04,935 --> 00:45:07,938 replaced it once again with a republic. 798 00:45:08,439 --> 00:45:11,375 But many French radicals felt this new republic 799 00:45:11,375 --> 00:45:13,610 still only served the wealthy. 800 00:45:13,610 --> 00:45:17,881 So France, being the revolutionary prose, had a second revolution. 801 00:45:18,215 --> 00:45:20,951 The very same year, this time 802 00:45:20,951 --> 00:45:23,954 the radicals fought against the liberals. 803 00:45:24,254 --> 00:45:27,391 The liberal French government cracked down hard on their former 804 00:45:27,391 --> 00:45:31,161 compatriots, deploying 40,000 troops to Paris. 805 00:45:31,795 --> 00:45:34,798 The streets were soon filled with radical black. 806 00:45:35,866 --> 00:45:38,235 And this didn't just happen in France. 807 00:45:38,235 --> 00:45:42,706 From Berlin to Milan, Budapest and Krakow, radicals 808 00:45:42,706 --> 00:45:46,477 resisted the new liberal reforms in favor of something more. 809 00:45:47,077 --> 00:45:48,712 Surprise, surprise. 810 00:45:48,712 --> 00:45:51,281 Radical. 811 00:45:51,281 --> 00:45:52,983 Meanwhile, conservatives 812 00:45:52,983 --> 00:45:57,454 saw this divide and used it to their advantage, offering to help 813 00:45:57,454 --> 00:46:02,059 suppress the radical protests in return for rolling back liberal reforms. 814 00:46:02,626 --> 00:46:03,994 And in many cases, 815 00:46:03,994 --> 00:46:08,198 the new Liberal governments, desperate for order, accepted this offer. 816 00:46:09,900 --> 00:46:12,970 What began as an alliance between liberals and radicals 817 00:46:13,504 --> 00:46:16,507 ended as an alliance between liberals and conservatives. 818 00:46:16,974 --> 00:46:20,177 Sicilian revolutionary Francesco Kripke 819 00:46:20,477 --> 00:46:24,181 reported that, quote, the moderates feared the victory 820 00:46:24,181 --> 00:46:27,351 of the people more than that of the troops, unquote. 821 00:46:28,285 --> 00:46:30,721 The wars raged on for months, 822 00:46:30,721 --> 00:46:33,524 but by the summer of 1849, 823 00:46:33,524 --> 00:46:36,527 the revolutions were completely crushed 824 00:46:36,627 --> 00:46:39,429 and many liberal reforms were undone. 825 00:46:39,429 --> 00:46:43,200 The new constitutions were abolished and parliaments were dissolved. 826 00:46:43,834 --> 00:46:48,038 France invaded Rome, defeated the new republic, and reinstated the Pope. 827 00:46:49,106 --> 00:46:52,476 Kings and emperors who once promised change, now declared. 828 00:46:52,810 --> 00:46:55,212 Never mind. 829 00:46:55,212 --> 00:46:58,415 Even in Palermo, Sicily, where the revolution began, 830 00:46:58,715 --> 00:47:02,052 the Sicilian king crushed the uprising into submission. 831 00:47:02,553 --> 00:47:05,923 When all was said and done, almost none of the attempts 832 00:47:05,923 --> 00:47:09,893 to establish democratic republics withstood the counter revolutions. 833 00:47:10,460 --> 00:47:12,729 The only exception was France. 834 00:47:12,729 --> 00:47:15,732 But they elected Napoleon's nephew, 835 00:47:15,799 --> 00:47:19,303 who pulled a classic Napoleon move and declared himself an emperor. 836 00:47:19,670 --> 00:47:22,105 Turning France back into an empire. 837 00:47:22,105 --> 00:47:25,042 Thank you very much for democratically electing me. 838 00:47:25,042 --> 00:47:28,645 I will now be your emperor, and there will be no more elections. 839 00:47:33,116 --> 00:47:34,051 De Tocqueville was 840 00:47:34,051 --> 00:47:37,221 right that a volcano was about to erupt in Europe. 841 00:47:38,021 --> 00:47:41,058 But after the dust settled and the lava hardened, 842 00:47:41,992 --> 00:47:44,995 the volcano remained intact. 843 00:47:46,830 --> 00:47:49,433 Historian AJP Taylor 844 00:47:49,433 --> 00:47:54,271 refers to the 1848 revolutions as the quote turning point 845 00:47:54,838 --> 00:47:57,841 that did not turn. 846 00:47:59,276 --> 00:48:00,077 What began 847 00:48:00,077 --> 00:48:03,413 as a conversation in France's National Assembly 848 00:48:03,881 --> 00:48:08,252 between a liberal left and right wing, now raged across Europe. 849 00:48:08,752 --> 00:48:11,755 And before long, the rest of the world 850 00:48:12,289 --> 00:48:16,593 as kings were dethroned and Europe's former colonies gained independence. 851 00:48:17,160 --> 00:48:22,366 People around the world faced the question the king is dead now. 852 00:48:22,366 --> 00:48:24,968 What? 853 00:48:24,968 --> 00:48:26,403 Thanks for listening. 854 00:48:26,403 --> 00:48:29,406 This was part one of a three part series. 855 00:48:30,040 --> 00:48:33,911 In the next two episodes, we'll trace how the ideological struggle 856 00:48:34,077 --> 00:48:38,715 between liberals, conservatives, and radicals continued to evolve, 857 00:48:39,149 --> 00:48:43,353 fueling world wars, cold wars, and culture wars. 858 00:48:44,221 --> 00:48:47,824 We'll explore the rise of new ideas, forms of government 859 00:48:48,158 --> 00:48:51,728 strategies, and the struggle not only against monarchy, 860 00:48:52,129 --> 00:48:53,797 but against capitalism itself. 861 00:48:55,198 --> 00:48:58,001 History continues to unfold. 862 00:48:58,001 --> 00:49:01,371 The past is the present, and the future is being written. 863 00:49:01,772 --> 00:49:05,609 And until next time, I hope you'll consider 864 00:49:05,609 --> 00:49:09,112 how the historic struggles are playing out and current events. 865 00:49:09,913 --> 00:49:12,916 What echoes of the past do you hear today? 866 00:49:12,983 --> 00:49:15,686 What can be learned from what came before? 867 00:49:15,686 --> 00:49:18,555 How might the future be different? 868 00:49:18,555 --> 00:49:21,558 Well, I don't know exactly how they'll shape the future. 869 00:49:21,825 --> 00:49:25,595 But joining the Human Nature Odyssey Patreon certainly wouldn't hurt. 870 00:49:26,129 --> 00:49:28,665 There, you'll have access to bonus episodes, 871 00:49:28,665 --> 00:49:31,668 additional thoughts and writings, and audiobook readings. 872 00:49:32,402 --> 00:49:35,405 Your support makes this podcast possible. 873 00:49:36,073 --> 00:49:39,543 If you enjoy Human Nature Odyssey, please share it with a friend. 874 00:49:40,510 --> 00:49:43,413 Thank you to Brian, Nori, Mark, 875 00:49:43,413 --> 00:49:47,084 Hanin, Maggie, Nina, Jessy, Scheer, Michael, 876 00:49:47,351 --> 00:49:50,520 and Alexis for your input and feedback on this episode. 877 00:49:51,088 --> 00:49:54,391 This series is made in association with the Post Carbon Institute. 878 00:49:54,858 --> 00:49:57,761 You can learn more at resilience StarTalk. 879 00:49:57,761 --> 00:50:02,132 And as always, our theme music is Celestial Soda Pop by Ray Lynch. 880 00:50:02,733 --> 00:50:04,601 You can find the link in our show notes. 881 00:50:05,702 --> 00:50:06,470 Talk with you soon.