Britain carries the Opium War to Beijing's unready doorstep with steam and iron, moving the crisis from the border frontiers to the heart of the imperial court itself. As imperial defenses strain and diplomacy replaces defiance, the two empires probe each other’s resolve – and discover that both of their understandings of the other have been built on little more than smoke.

Time Period Covered:
July 1840 – March 1841

Major Historical Figures:The Qing Empire:
The Daoguang Emperor (Aisin-Gioro Minning) [r. 1820–1850]
Lin Zexu, Imperial Commissioner [1785–1850]
Qishan, Imperial Commissioner and Governor-General of Zhili [d. 1854]
Yiliang, Governor-General of Liangguang [fl. 1840s]
The British Empire:
Queen Victoria [r. 1837–1901]
Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, Foreign Secretary [1784–1865]
Charles Elliot, Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China [1801–1875]
Sir Henry Pottinger, Plenipotentiary to China [1789–1856]
Sir James Bremer, Royal Navy commander [1786–1850]

Major Sources Cited:
Platt, Stephen R. Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China’s Last Golden Age.
Lovell, Julia. The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China.
Wakeman, Frederic Jr. Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861.
Fairbank, John K. Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast.

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